During the First World War German use of unrestricted submarine warfare, supported by extensive mining and surface raids, very nearly forced Britain out of the war in 1917. The island’s heavy dependence on seaborne supplies was gravely threatened again in 1939, supplemented this time by air attacks on shipping.
After the war Commanders Waters and Barley wrote a Naval Staff History which has long been recognised as an authoritative study of the impact of the German campaign and its ultimate defeat by Britain and her allies. It remains an indispensable basis for any serious study of the Battle of the Atlantic and has here been updated and revised by Dr Grove, who also contributes a perceptive introduction outlining its significance.
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INDEX TO INTRODUCTION Admiralty, ix, xvii, xix, xx, xxi, xxii, xxv; Historical Section (later Branch), ix, x, xiii, xiv, xvii, xxi, xxii, xxiii, xxvi; Naval Intelligence Department, xviii; Operational Research, xix, xxiv; Training & Staff Duties Division, x Air Ministry, xvii, xix, xx, xxi, xxii Aircraft, xiv, xv; (Types): Halifax, xxi; Lancaster, xxi; Liberator, xxi; Shark, xii; Swordfish, xii Aircraft carriers, xiv, xv, xxii, xxiv, xxvi Aircraft direction escort, xv Anti-aircraft, xi, xxii Anti-submarine warfare, x, xiv, xxi, xxii, xxvii Arctic ocean, xiv Armada, Spanish, xviii Ashridge College, xii Atlantic, Battle of, xi, xvi, xviii, xxii, xxv, xxvi Attack at source, xiv, xv, xx, xxii Augusta, xiii Axis powers, xii Barley, Commander F. RNVR, xiii, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii Beatty, Admiral of the Fleet Earl, x Bellairs, Rear Admiral R. M., xiii, xiv, xvi, xxi, xxii, xxiii Biscay, Bay of, xxiii British Society for the History of Science, The, xxv Brodie, Captain C. C, xii Burke, Fleet Admiral A. A., USN, xxiv Canada, Department of National Defence, xix Chiefs of Staff, xv China, xii Churchill, Rt Hon Sir Winston L. S., ix Coastal Command Review, xx, xxii Coastal forces, xiv Convoy, ix, xii, xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, xxvii, xxix Cruisers, xv Dawson, Dr W. E., xxiv Defence, Ministry of, xxvii Defensive control, xv Destroyers, xv Dewar, Captain A. C., x Dewar, Vice Admiral K. G. B., x, xi, xiii, xvii Drake, Sir Francis, xv Edinburgh, Admiral of the Fleet, the Duke of, xxix Exercise Trident, xiii, xv, xvi, xvii, xxvi, xxvii Fleet Air Arm, xi, xii; 830 Squadron, xii France, xii Germany, xiii, xvii, xviii, xx, xxi, xxii Grenfell, Captain R., xii Gretton, Vice-Admiral Sir P., xxiv Guided weapons ship, xv Hunter-killer operations, xiv, xv, xix, xxii, xxiv Italy, xiii Ixi Ixii INDEX Japan, xxv Journal of the Royal Naval Scientific Sen’ice, xxiii Kemp, Lt-Commander P. K., xxv Keyes, Admiral of the Fleet Lord, xv Leake, Admiral, xii Liverpool, xvi London, xvi McGrigor, Admiral of the Fleet Sir R., xix, xx, xxi, xxiii Minelayers, xiv Mining, x, xiv, xv, xvii, xxvi, xxix Moreton, Group Captain, N. V., RAF, xv Mountbatten of Burma, Admiral of the Fleet Earl, xxiii, xxiv National Maritime Museum, xxv Naval History Prize, xii, xviii Naval Review, x, xxiv, xxv Newell, Philip, xx North Atlantic Treaty Organization, xxii, xxiv Norway, xxiii Nuclear weapons, xv, xxii Offensive control, xv Oliver, Admiral Sir G.N., xiv, xv, xvi Oxford, xiii Pacific Ocean, xxv Red Cross, xiii Royal Air Force, xi, xii, xv, xvi, xxi, xxii, xxiii; Bomber Command, xiv, xxi; Coastal Command, xv, xix, xx, xxi Royal Naval Air Stations: Donibristle, xii; Leuchars, xii Royal Naval Colleges: Dartmouth, xxvi; Greenwich, xiii, xiv, xxii Royal United Services Institution, Sandys, Rt Hon Duncan, xxiv Saunders, Commander M. G., xviii Sea lines of communication, xxvi, xxvii Shipping, x, xiv, xviii, xxii, xxiv, xxv, xxvii, xxix Ships: Achilles, xi; Ark Royal, xii; Barham, xi; Berwick, xi, xii; Courageous, xii; Eagle, xii; Formidable, xi; Gloucester, xii; Vanguard, xv; (shore establishment) Vernon, xxvi Slessor, Marshal of the RAF Sir J., xix Soviet Union, navy, xiv, xv Spanish Succession, War of, xii Submarines, x, xiv, xv, xviii, xix, xx, xxii, xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii Suez, xxv Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic, xxiii Taylor, Henry, xviii Toulon, xii Trade defence, xiii, xiv Tunis, xii U-boats, x, xv, xviii, xix, xx, xxii, xxiii, xxvi, xxvii Ultra, xviii, xix United States, Navy, xix, xxii Waters Lt-Commander D. W., passim World War I, ix, xiv, xviii World War II, xv Zone of maritime control, xiv, xv Index ( Vol. IB, Tables and Plans, should also be consulted throughout) ABC—1 Staff Agreement: 80. Abstract terminology; dangers of, 49. Achilles, H.M.S.: 215. Activity, H.M.S., escort carrier: operates with 2nd Escort Group, 120; with Russian Convoy, 295; see also under Aircraft carriers (escort). Admiral Graf Spee, German ‘ pocket battleship ‘: proceeds to sea, 214; operational orders to, 214; operations of, 216; tactics used by, 216. Admiral Hipper, German cruiser: arrives at Brest, January 1941, 22; in 1039, 214; first cruise of, 219; action with Berwick and Bonaventure, 219; attacks SLS 64, 220. Admiral Scheer, German pocket battleship: attack on Convoy HX 84, 22, 218; sinks.Jervis Bay, 218 ; disrupts convoy system, 218; encounters Glasgow, 218; ships sunk by, 219. Admiralty: presages defeat by U-boats, 1916,4; rejects patrol plan of 1811, 5; creates AntiSubmarine Division, 1916, 6; reduces convoy escorts, 1918, 6; ineffective policy of hunting U-boats, 6; no intention to institute convoy, 1935, 17; reverses policy, 1938, 17; proposals for A/S forces, 1939, 18; introduces convoy, 1939, 29; operational control of shipping by, 34-35; forced to reduce upper speed limit for convoy, 40; policy for inclusion of ships in convoy, 40; submarine tracking room, 69; meeting with Air Ministry on policy in Bay, 110; shipping loss statistics maintained by, 300-303. Adriatic: First World War, U-boat bases bombed, 10. Adventure, H.M.S.: damaged by mine, 204. Aeroplanes, A/S, shore-based: use of in First World War, 6-10, 12; need for long range, 9 ; see also Aircraft; Airships; Flying-boats; Kite-balloons; Seaplanes. Air anti-submarine escorts: see Escorts, anti-submarine (air), and Coastal Command, R.A.F. Air cover: value of from 19439 19, 26; bases used for, and extent of, 34; U-boat attacks beyond range of, 40, 42; proved value of from 1943, 43; with N. Russia convoys, 89; an essential element of convoy, 356. Air A/S patrols, see Patrols, A/S, air, and Coastal Command, R.A.F. Aircraft, A/S, First World War: influence on U-boats, 6; number and types on A/S duties, 19189 7; comparison in strength of maritime aircraft First and Second World Wars, 8; U-boats sighted and attacked by, 8; U-boats’ respect for, 9; views of Naval Staff on, 9-10; use in Mediterranean, 1918, 12. Aircraft, A/S, Second World War: effectiveness of A/S armament, 76, 77; shallow setting depth-charge for, 77; in Avenger, 89; numbers in Coastal Command, 103; unreliable reports by, 110; most effective use of, 229, 230; C.-in-C. Home Fleet deplores shortage of, 354; an essential element of convoy, 356; capabilities of, 1939, 356; see also R.A.F. Coastal Command, Escorts, Patrols A/S Air. Aircraft carriers: withdrawn from A/S searches after loss of Courageous, 54, 56; Ark Royal sunk, 76; Implacable off Norway, 128; summary of U-boat kills by, 229; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Aircraft carriers (escort): advent of, 23, 34, 292, 293; merchant ships for conversion into, 75, 293; aircraft carried in, 95; operations of, 95, 99; diverted to North Africa, 105, 293; operate in Bay, 111; operate with support groups, 119, 120; on roving cruises, 121; U-boats sunk by British, 121, 122; U-boats sunk by U.S., 122; in operation’Overlord,’ effective employment of aircraft, 229; summary of U-boat kills by, 229; origin, development and use of, 291-296 passim; U.S. escort carriers, 293-296 passim; summary of operational performance, 311; escort flying effort by 1944, 312; highest individual carrier effort, 312; U.S. and British, U-boat kills by, 313-316. Aircraft, German reconnaissance: 118; co-operation with U-boats, 119; operate from Gardcmoen, 161, 163; see also Condors (Focke-Wulf). Air Ministry: convenes Air/Sea Interception Committee, 102; meeting with Admiralty on policy in Bay, 110. 357 358 INDEX Air Reconnaissance: German plan to use, 118, 119; types of aircraft for, 118; air base for, 161, 163; see also Condors (Focke-Wulf). Airships, First World War: 6-8. Air/Sea Interception Committee: convened, 102. Ajaxy H.M.S.: 215. Alcantara, H.M.S., A.M.C. (armed merchant cruiser): action with Thor, 218, 221. Alexandria: convoy route extended to, 1943, 30, 33; No. 228 Squadron R.A.F. (Sunderlands) at, 134; No. 230 Squadron R.A.F. (Sunderlands) at, 134; F.A.A. Squadrons at, 134. Algiers: Area Combined H.Q.. at, 140. Alstertor: German supply ship, sunk, 78. Altiscopes in U-boats, 1918, 9. American Zone, Atlantic: Germans order sinking of tankers in, 1939, 51. Anglo-German Naval Agreement: terms of, 14, 15. Anti-aircraft escorts, see Escorts, anti-aircraft. Anti-aircraft guns: limited number available, 158; numbers of ships requiring, 158; priorities for, 158. Anti-E-boat escorts, see Escorts, anti-E-boat. Anti-submarine Division: Report of, 19189 4, 5; creation of, 6. Anti-submarine Escorts: see Escorts, anti-submarine. Anti-submarine measures: none to counter night surfaced attack, 65. Anti-submarine Striking Forces: operated in Western Approaches, 54; trawlers deployed as, 1939-40, 55; destroyers employed as, 54-55; ineffectiveness of, 55. Anti-submarine Warfare, First World War: failure to make adequate post-war study of, 3-4; effect of escort shortage on, 3; effect of convoy on, 4-5, 8, 10, 11; developments in Med., 12; means of U-boat detection in, 6; maritime aircraft, their rise in and effect on, 6-10; A/S aircraft, German countermeasure to, 9; hunting forces and patrols, 10; two schools of thoughts on, 11, 60; offensive operations in, 11, 13; A/S barrages, 12-13. Second World War: pre-war plans and preparations, 17-18; effect of convoy air cover, group training, radar, 19, 43; losses of A/S vessels in, 20; Coastal Command not prepared for, 22; aircraft as U-boat killers in Med., 23; decisive role of aircraft in, 23, 42; Escort carriers, plans for, 23; comparative value of air escort and air patrol in, 24; various forms of flying effort on, compared, 25, 26; achievements of V.L.R. aircraft in, 25-26; effect of Schnorkel, 26-27, 123; erroneous U.S. views on, 41-42; First and Second World Wars compared, 44-45; effect of weather on, 46; misleading analogies, 49; striking forces operated in, 54-55; conditions in English Channel, 123; preparations for in English Channel, 125; in inshore waters, 129, 130; four phases of, in Med., 133; escort carrier operations, 291-296 passim; major A/S surface forces, numbers and dispositions, 1939- 1945, 298-299. Anti-surface raider escorts: see Escorts, anti-surface raider. Aphrodite: radar decoy balloon, 109, 118. Archer, H.M.S., escort carrier: in service, 95, 293; U-boat hunting in Bay, 111; completion date, 293; first U-boat sinking by Rocket Projectile, 294; outline of service, 293-295 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Argentia: see Newfoundland. Ark Royal, H.M.S.: U-boat sunk by escort, 54; sunk by U-boat, 76, 134; her aircraft operate from Gibraltar, 76,135; with Force K, 215. Arming of merchant ships: erroneous belief in efficacy of, 3; many British ships armed, 1939, 50; effect of on U-boat war policy, 50-51. Aruba: convoy system extended to, 32; U-boats off, 83. Asdics: too great reliance on, 6; number of vessels with, 18; not fitted in French ships with Gibraltar convoys, 54; pre-war reliance on, and limitations, 63, 64, 65; fitted in minesweepers, 71; Q,attachment for, 122; Type 147B introduced, 122. A.S.V. Mk. 2: see Radar. Athabaskan, H.M.C.S.: damaged, 112. Athenia, s.s.: sunk on first night of war, 29,50; sinking leads to immediate adoption of convoy, 54. INDEX 359 Atlantic Ocean: statistics of merchant ship losses in, 302-310 passim; Winter campaign in 1941-42, Report of Committee on, 345-353. Atlantis, German auxiliary raider: encounter with Devonshire, 78, 222, 223; sails from Germany, 218. Attacker, H.M.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 293-294 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Audacity, H.M.S., first escort carrier: service and loss, 40, 75; value on Gibraltar route, 75, 78; with HG 76, 75, 164, 293; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Avenger, U.S. carrier-borne aircraft: vis-a-vis Swordfish aircraft, 312, 313; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Avenger, H.M.S.: escort carrier, with North Russia convoys, 89; completion date, 293; sunk, 293; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Azores: air bases set up in, October 1943, 33; air cover to convoys from, 36, 43, 119; Italian U-boats operate •off, 59; German U-boats diverted to, 71, 90. Babitonga, German supply ship: sunk, 78. Baltic: closed to shipping, 29; minelaying by aircraft in, 153, 154. Barrage, Dover: see Dover, Strait of. Barrage, Northern: see Minelaying (British). Barrage, Otranto: see Otranto. Battle of Atlantic: Winter campaign in 1041-42, Report of Committee on, 345-353. Battler, H.M.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 293-294 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). ‘ Bay Offensive ‘: see Biscay, Bay of. Bclchen: German supply ship, sunk, 78. Bengal, H.M.I.S., fights Japanese surface raiders, 224. Bergen, Norway: convoys from Forth, 30; U-boats operate from, 58; U-boats destroyed at, 128. Berlin: discussions between Germans and British in, 14. Bermuda: air cover to convoys from, 36; U.S. base at, 80. Berwick, H.M.S.: 215; action with Hipper when escorting troop convoy, 219. Bideford, H.M.S.: damaged, 112. Biscay, Bay of: Coastal Command patrols in, 24, 25; U-boats attack independent ships for, 39; U-boat bases on, 58; pack attacks facilitated, 62; bombing of bases, 60, 61, 171; U-boats sunk in, 93; Coastal Command patrols in, 100; views on effect of patrols, 100, 101; offensive intensified in, 104; German fighter aircraft in, 104; U-boat casualties in, 104, 106, 109, 110, 111; defeat of A/S patrols in, 106; A/S operations in, 108, 109, 229; orders to U-boats crossing, 109, 113; policy in, Admiralty, Air Ministry meeting, 110; air and surface patrols in, 110; areas ‘Musketry’ and * Seaslug,’ 110; Escort Groups patrol in, 110, 111; surface patrols withdrawn from, 112; decline of U-boat kills in, 112; U/B Command reviews situation in, 113; radar decoy buoys in, 119; air patrols in unabated, 120; U-boats sortie from bases in, 126; mines laid in, 153, 154; bombing of bases ineffective, 171, 230; summary of Coastal Command operations, 229. Bismarck, German battleship: sortie by and sinking of, 221. Biter, H.M.S., escort carrier: in service, 95; escorts HX 237, 95; completion date, 293; outline of service, 293-294 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Blanche, H.M.S.: sunk by mine, 204. Block Island, U.S.S., escort carrier: supports convoys, 99; outline of service, 294; sunk, 295; sec also Aircraft carriers (escort). Blockade: exit of enemy raiders not prevented by, 49; war zones established by enemy, 50; French ships exempt at first, 50; war zones extended, 51; U.S.A. shipping exempt, 51-52. Bngne, U.S.S., escort carrier: with SC 123, 91; begins operations, 95; escorts ON 1S1, 95; supports convoys, 99; outline of service, 294-295 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Bomber Command: see R,A,F. Bomber Command. 360 INDEX Bombing of U-boat bases: effect on U-boats, First World War, 10; effect on U-boats, Second World War, 16, 48, 49, 60, 128, 171, 230; not part of War Plan, 165; estimated effect of too optimistic, 166; ineffective, 171; results in Med., 333. Bombs, Anti-submarine: incapable of sinking U-boats, 22. Bombsight: not available in Coastal Command, 1941, 74; Marks IX and XIV used by Bomber Command, 168; Mark II stabilised automatic, 168; Norden, in U.S. bombers, 168. Bonaventure, H.M.S.: action with Hipper, when escorting troop convoy, 219. Borde, H.M.S.: Mine destructor ship, 182. Bordeaux: U-boats operate from, 59, 171; U-boat mined off, 154; Condors based at, 161; use by Italians, 171. Boston, U.S.A.: convoy system extended to, 32; escort base at, 34. Boulogne: German mining off, 193. Brazil: U.S. coastal convoys extended to, 30, 32; enters war, 89; U-boats off, 100; U-boats withdraw from, 127. Breme: German supply ship, sunk, 77. Bremen: new U-boats found at, April 1945, 49. Brest: effect of German heavy ships at, 22; U-boats sortie from, 126; U-boat mined off, 154; becomes U-boat base, 171; Scharnhorst, Gneisenau and Print. Eu%en in, 171; U-boat bunkers, 171. Bristol Channel: U-boat mines in, 192; aircraft minelaying in, 196, 197; early mine casualties in, 204. British Coastal Forces: vis-&-vis E-boats, 196. British Expeditionary Force: evacuation from France, 58. British Guiana: U.S. base in, 80. Bruges: bombing of U-boat assembly yard at, 10. ‘ Bucket Brigade,’ the: shipping protection system, 82, 85. Buoys: swept channel, First World War, 5. Cabinet, British: presages defeat by U-boats, 4; defers naval construction, 17; reduces upper limit of speed for inclusion in convoy, 40; upper speed limit for inclusion in convoy restored, 72. Cadiz: U-boats to refuel in, 135. Calais: German mining off, 193, 194. Cagliari: U-boat sunk in, 140. C.A.M. ships: come into service, 75, 163; operate on southern routes, 163. Campania, H.M.S., escort carrier: 296; sec also Aircraft carriers (escort). Canada: signs Defence Pact with U.S.A., 80; U-boats in coastal waters of, 127; 31st M.S. Flotilla in ‘Neptune’, 237. Canary Islands: German supply ships at, 77. Cape Breton Island: 80. Cape Clear: sinkings south of, 54; U-boat mined off, 129. Cape Cod: sinkings cast of, 81. Cape of Good Hope: route for convoys after June 1940, 31; Mediterranean route resumed, June 1943, 33; U-boats operate off, 90. Cape Hattcras: U-boats operate off, 81. Cape Lookout: U-boat sunk off, 82. Cape Ortegal: A/S patrol area off, 111. Cape Palos: U-boat sunk off, 137. Cape Sable: U-boats operate near, 85. Cape Tencs: U-boats sunk off, 137, 140. INDEX 361 Cape Verde Islands: 80; U-boats off, 90; U-boats refuelling west of, 122; U-boats sunk west of, 122. Cape Wrath: U-boat sunk off, 129. Card, U.S.S., escort carrier: supports convoys, 99; outline of service, 293-294 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Caribbean: U-boats in, 82, 83; shipping losses in, 83; convoy starts in, 83; effect of convoy in, 83, 85; convoys and losses in, 99; U-boats attack in, 100; U-boats withdraw from, 127. Carnarvon Castle, H.M.S., armed merchant cruiser: action with Tfior, 218, 221. Carrying power: effect of convoy on, 4. Casualties (personnel): British merchant ships, 45. Catalina A/S aircraft: number in service, 103; U.S.N. Squadron at Gibraltar. 142. Cattaro: air offensive against, 1918, 12. Channel Force: covering Western Approaches, 1939, 54. Chaser, H.M.S., escort carrier: 295; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). * Checkmate ‘: ship identification system, 223. Chenango, U.S.S., escort carrier: 293; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Chesapeake: U-boat sunk off, 82. * Chop ‘ Line (Change of Operational Control): adopted 1.7.1942, 35. Cilicia, H.M.S., A.M.C.: 221. City of Flint, U.S. merchant ship: captured by Deutschland, 217. Clement, s.s.: sunk by GrafSpee, 216. Clyde: coastal convoy base, 30. Clyde, Firth of: U-boat mines in, 192; aircraft rninclaying in, 194. Coastal Air Force: in North Africa, 140. Coastal Command: see R.A.F. Coastal Command. Congress, United States: passes Lend-Lease Act, 80. Condors (Focke-Wulf): German long range reconnaissance aircraft, 161; numbers available, 161; ships sunk by, 161; German Navy in control of, 161; attack HG 53, 161; method of operating, 161, 162; operational bases cf, 161; German Navy loses control of, 162; handicapped by limited endurance, 162-163; cease using Gardcmoen, 163; home U-boats on to convoys, 163; increase in numbers of, 164; ultimate fate of, 164; see also Aircraft, German Reconnaissance and Air Reconnaissance, German. Contraband: German Prize Regulations concerning, 50; regulations progressively tightened, 51; German avoidance of incidents with U.S.A., 51-52. Convoy/s, First World War: definition of, 2; false arguments against, 4, 13, 47-49, 66; ocean, immediate effect of, 5; U-boats sunk by escorts to, 5, 62; shipping losses decline, 5; effect of, 5, 10; compulsory in 18th century, 5; both offensive and defensive, 5, 13, 47-48; first experimental ocean, 7, 44; effect cf air escort, 7; between Tync and Hurnber, 10; in Irish Sea and Channel, 10; trifling losses in, 10; Scandinavian and Gibraltar, 12. Second World War: defeats U-boats off U.S. coast, 13; no intention to institute, 17; policy on reversed, 17; Admiralty views on, 17; no plans for ocean A/S escorts, 18; losses among escorts, 20; to Russia, 22, 23; success of aircraft with, 24, 25, 36; outline of system of, 29, 37; American help with, 31; speeds for inclusion in, 29, 31; cycles of, 30, 32; speed for inclusion in reduced, 31, 37, 40; upper speed limit restored, 31, 72; no plans for in U.S., 32, 41; through Mediterranean, 32; routes of ocean, 33, 39; passage times of, 33; organisation of escorts, 33; escort fuelling problem, 33; operational control of, 34-35; extent of air cover to, 34; ocean convoys at sea, 36; ocean, analysis of losses, 36, 48, 302; speed, effect of on loss rates, 36; escorts linked with imports, 36; upper speed limit reduction, its effects, 37, 40; more ships convoyed, 37; size and losses related, 37; large convoys, small loss rate, 37; loss rate vis-a-vis independent loss rate, 38, 43; losses coastal and Scandinavian, 39; losses by mine, 39; 16th century example, 41; effect of lack of in U.S. waters, 41; escort problem misunderstood, 41, 42, 48; begins off U.S. east coast, 41; no sinkings by gunfire, 42; example from 18th century, 42; losses in 1944-45, 43, 302; fast, medium and slow convoys, 43; rescue ships with, 45; decisive in Atlantic campaign, 49; Athenia sinking and convoy, 54; policy off East Coast, 54; convoy and carrying power, 67; end-to-end escort for, 71; U-boats ordered to attack escorts, 73; U-boats sunk by escorts, 78; effect of in U.S. waters, 85; losses in, 89, 90, 91, 92, 302; southerly route in N. Atlantic, 91; U-boats’ reluctance to attack, 92; remarks on success of, 94; evasive routeing of, 362 INDEX 108; carriers or M.A.C. ships with, 119, 291-297 passim; routed through S.W. Approaches, 128; losses in, trifling, 128; resumed through Mediterranean, 140, 141; value of against mines, 208; value of against surface raiders, 226; instructions concerning in 1731 and 1806, 235; general notes and statistics on, 300-3 10passim; A/S aircraft an essential element of, 356; immunity of, with air escorts, 356. Convoys mentioned: HG, started, 31; HG 76, attack on, 75, 164; HG 53, attacked by Condors, 161; HG73, attack on, 163; HX, started, 30, 54; cycles for, 31, 32; routes for, 33; escort schedules for, 34; ratio of loss in, 36; HX 84, attacked by raider, 22, 218; HX 112, 61; HX 121, four ships lost in, 71; HX 126, heavy loss, 71, 72, 101; HX 133, loss limited by reinforcements, 72; HX 150, escorted by U.S. warships, 81; HX 156, attack on, 81; HX 230, attack on, 91; HX 239, U-boats unable to attack, 93, 94, 95; HX 237, 94, 95; HX240, 96; HX 241, 96; HX 278, 2nd E.G. supports, 120; HX 300, 128; HX 327, escorts sink U-boat, 129; HXF, started, 32; HXM, started, 32; HXS, started, 32; HXS300, largest convoy, 32; KM, to North Africa, 32; KMS 14X, first east-bound through Mediterranean, 33; KS, from North Africa, 32; MKS join SL, 32; MKS 38, with SL147, 120; 2nd E.G. supports, 120; OA, started, 30; routed north-about, 31; ceased, October 1940, 31; OB, started, 30; routed by North Channel, 31; ceased, July 1941, 31; OB 293, 61; OB 318, 71; OB 288 and 289, aircraft sight and U-boats attack, 161; OB 290, attacked by Condors, 161; OG, started, 30, 31; routed by North Channel, 31; OG 71, suffers losses by U-boat attack, 163; ON, resumed on five-day cycle, 32; standard routes for and average times, 33; escort schedules for, 34; ratio of loss in, 36; ON 127, attack on, 89; ON 184, attack on, 95; ON 202, attack on, 118; losses in, 118; ON 224, 2nd E.G. supports, 120; ONF, started, 31; ONS, started, 31; ceased to run, April 1943; and resumed, 1944, 32; standard routes for, and average times, 33; escort schedules for, 34; ratio of loss in, 36; ONS 132, 88; ONS 154, heavy attack on, 90; ONS 5, heavy attack on, 93; ONS 7, attack on, 93; ONS 9, 95; ONS 18, attack on, 118; losses in, 118; OS, started, 31; KMS convoys join, 32; routed south of Ireland, 33; SC, started for ships of 7£-9 knots, 31; ceased to run, April 1943, and resumed, 1944, 32; routes for, and average times, 33; escort schedules for, 34; ratio of loss in, 36; SC 7, attacked by U-boats, 65; SC 26, attacked by U-boats, 71; SC 48, attacked by U-boats, 81; SC 123, attack on, 91; Bogue with, 91; SC 130, attack on fails, 92, 94; SC 129, attacked, 93; SC 143, attacked, 118; SL, started, 31, 54; weak escort, 71; MKS convoys join, 32; SL118, attack on, 88; SL 125, attack on, 89; SL 147, supported by 2nd E.G., 120; SL 811 attack on, 163; SLS 64, attacked by Hipper, 220; TE 3, 90; TS 37, losses in, 94; UGF, to North Africa, 32; casualty ratio in, 36; UGS, to North Africa, 32; casualty ratio in, 36; XTG 1, first west-bound through Mediterranean, 33. Core, U.S.S., escort carrier: supports convoys, 99; outline of service, 293-294 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Cornwall, H.M.S.: with Force I, 215; sinks Pinguin, 222. Corvettes: ‘ Flower’ class ordered, 1939, 18; mainstay of A/S forces, 19; * Castle,’ ‘ River ‘ and * Loch ‘ classes introduced, 19; causes of loss of, 20; entry into service, 1940, 58, 59; lent to U.S.A., 82; an effect of advent of, 298. Courageous, H.M.S.: sunk by U-boat, 54, 56. Counter-attack: convoy means of immediate, 5.’ Croaten, U.S.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 295; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Cromer Knoll: German mining near, 191. Cross Sands Lt. Vsl.: U-boat mines near, 192. Cumberland, H.M.S.: 215. Cunningham, Admiral Sir Andrew: supports view of C.-in-C.H.F. on aircraft situation, 354. Curasao: U-boats off, 83. Cutters: transfer of, from U.S., 72. Cyclops, s.s.: sunk off Cape Cod, 81. Dakar: U-boats leave waters off, 127. Danzig: U-boat mined off, 154. Dasher, H.M.S., escort carrier: completion date, 293; loss of, 293-4; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Degaussing: its value against magnetic mines, 206, INDEX 363 Delays: waitime to independent ships, 4; a reason for introduction of convoy in 1917, 4. Delivery rates, merchant ships: diagrammatic comparison of independent ships and convoyed ships, 310. Depth-charges: adapted for aerial release, 22, 68; Torpex-filled after mid-1942, 23; similar to those in First World War, 65; increase in D/G patterns, 68; set too deep from aircraft, 74. Destroyers: building of deferred, 1938, 17; ‘Hunt’ class designed, 1938, 18; causes of loss of, 20; form bulk of early escort forces, 39; transfer of 50 from U.S.N., 69. Deutschland, German * pocket battleship’: proceeds to sea, 214; operational orders to, 214; operations of, 217; captures U.S. ship City of Flint, 217. Devonshire, H.M.S.: sinks Egerland, 77; sinks Atlantis, 78, 222, 223. Diversion: shipping, from East Coast, 53. Doenitz, Admiral: on tanker sinkings off Florida coast, 41; on danger to U-boats from escorted convoys, 48; U-boats to attack before convoys begin, 54; U-boats the backbone of warfare, 58; on Italian U-boats in Atlantic, 59; orders attacks on escort vessels, 73; on situation in U.S. waters, 85; broadcasts to Germans, 85; reports on situation, 92; withdraws U-boats, 93; anxieties of, 94; reviews situation, 97; reviews situation, 104; ready to resume U-boat attacks, 117; his policy to attack escorts, 117, 118; succeeds Raeder, 225. Doric Star, s.s.: sunk by GrafSpee, 216. Dorsetshire, H.M.S.: sinks Python, 78; part of Force I, 215. Dover: Germans mine harbour, 194. Dover, Strait of: 10; U-boats sunk by mines in, 13, 150, 231; plans for Barrage, 29; mining begins, 54; First World War barrage, 148; effective blocking of, 149; Second World War barrage, 150, 153, 231. Downs, The: shoals avoided by U-boats, 39; German mining in, 191, 193. Dunkirk, evacuation of: return to service of damaged ships, 59; German mining, 193, 194; effect on A/S forces, 298. Dutch Trade: convoy system, 7. D.W.I.: minesweeping aircraft, 182. E-boats: mining operations in U.K. waters, 194, 195; strategical use of, 195, 196; tactics, 196; destroyers effective against, 196; vis-a-vis British Coastal Forces, 196; attack coastal shipping, 196, 198; harassed by air patrols, 198; become principal minelayers, 199; retreat to Holland, 201; attack Antwerp convoys, 202. Eagle, H.M.S.: aircraft carrier in Mediterranean, 134; disembarks aircraft, 134; with Force I, ^lo. East Coast Barrage: see Minefields. East Coast, Great Britain: aircraft patrols off, 6-7; convoys, 7; much independent shipping, 8; aircraft as convoy escorts on, 10; start of convoy system, 29, 30; avoided by U-boats, 39; mine barrage off, 39, 55, 60, 149, 151, 152; shipping to avoid, threat of air attack, 53; air threat and institution of convoy, 54; no convoy losses by U-boat, 55; areas where U-boats active, 55; A/S patrols ineffective, 55; lights assist German minelayers, 189 ; E-boat minelaying off, 194, 195, 198; E-boats attack shipping off, 198; early mine casualties off, 203, 204. Eastern Sea Frontier, U.S.A.: 35; U-boat attacks off, 41. Eastomp: 34. Egerland, German supply ship: sunk, 77. Egret, H.M.S.: sunk, 112. Elbe, German supply ship: sunk, 77. Empire Macalpine, merchant aircraft carrier: with ONS 9, 95. English Channel: A/S measures in, 1917, 7; no convoys run, 8; convoys started, 10; U-boat threat to Normandy convoys, 26; cover against surface raiders, 1939, 29; ships for HX/ON convoys proceed through, 32; without A/S Forces in War Plan, 53; A/S hunting forces in, 1939, 54; conditions for A/S operations in, 123; enemy minelaying in, 192, 194, 196; E-boats attack shipping in, 196, 198, 200; early mine casualties in, 204. 364 INDEX Escorts: Anti-aircraft, see Aircraft carriers (escort), G.A.M. ships, Fighter Catapult Ships. Escorts, Anti-submarine (aircraft), First World War: decisive influence on U-boats, 6-7; integral feature of convoy system, 7; aircraft employed, 8; escort sorties and results, 8; effect on U-boat tactics and strategy, 9; need for long-range aircraft, 9; views of Naval Staff on value of, 9; deployment with convoys, 10; in relation to shipping losses, 355. Escorts, Anti-Submarine (aircraft), Second World War: effect on U-boats, 92; convoy losses in absence of, 104; success against U-boats, January-May 1944, 121; success against U-boats, June 1944-Mqy 1945, 125-130; success of a summary, 229, 230; in relation to shipping losses, 355. Escorts, anti-submarine (ships), Second World War: inadequate for task, 18; situation after one year, 19; local meeting point, 30; limit extended, 31; fuelling problems, 33; escort groups, 1942, 34; average numbers with convoys, 36, 41, 54, 91; numbers of affect volume of imports, 36; large convoys economise in escorts, 37; shortage of in 1940, 39; convoy escort their first charge, 42; superior to hunting groups, 11, 42, 47, 48; disposition in initial War Plan, 53; failure of hunting forces, 54, 55; most efficient destroyers of U-boats, 56; limit of endurance, 60; drawn off from convoys, 61; insufficient speed of, 64; success against U-boats, March 1941, 66, 69, 70; Doenitz orders attacks on, 73; effects of shortage of, 88; effects of lack of speed, 88; success against U-boats, 89, 90, 91; bear main burden, 94; success against U-boats, January-May 1944, 121; success against U-boats, June 1944- Mqy 1945, 125-130. Escort carriers: see Aircraft carriers (escort). Escort (Support) Group, 2nd: 96; patrols in Bay, 110; sinks U-boats, 110, 111; operates S.W. of Ireland, 120; sinks U.592, 120; supports SL 747/MKS 38, 120; sinks U.734, 120; sinks U.238, 120; sinks U.424, 120; supports HX 278 and ON 224, 120; sinks U.264, 120. Escort Group, 9th: joins ONS 18, 118. Escort Group, 20th: first support group formed, 88; supports ONS 132, 88. Escort Group, 21st: sinks U-boats in Minches, 130. Escort Group, 42nd: escorts SL 118, 88. Escort Group Bl: operates in Bay, 110. Escort Group B5: operates in Bay, 110. Escort vessels: building of deferred, 1938, 17; construction of, 1939-45, 17-20; see also Escorts. Escorts, Anti-E-boat: destroyers most effective, 196; British Coastal Forces, 196. Escorts, Anti-Submarine (ships), First World War: basis of Atlantic convoy (1917-18), 3; U-boats sunk by, 4-5, 10, 12; capabilities, 6; use of trawlers, 12. Escorts, Anti-Submarine (Ships), Second World War: little construction before 1939, 17; no plans for convoy escorts, 18; number of A/S vessels available, 1939, 18; ocean convoy work not anticipated, 18, 60; losses and causes of loss of, 20; U-boat policy towards, 20; accompany convoys end-to-end, 25, 31. Escorts, Anti-surface raider: with ocean convoys, 30-31, 218-221. Esso Hamburg, German supply ship: sunk, 78. Evasive routeing: impracticable in coastal waters, 5; part in preserving convoys, 31, 39, 40; improved by refuelling escorts from tankers, 33; adoption in 16th century, 41; increases flying time for A/S aircraft, 60-61; pack attacks and, 62; increased zone for, 71; success of, 72. Exchange rate of U-boats and ships sunk: to Fall of France, 55-56. Exeter, H.M.S.: 215. Exports: relation of to number of escorts, 36. Fairy Bank: German minefield near, 191. Falmouth: Rear-Admiral’s report on French coal trade, First World War, 10; South Coast convoys from, Second World War, 39; German minelaying at, 192, 196. Farndale, H.M.S.: sinks Italian U-boat, 138. Faroes-Iceland Barrage: see Mines/Minefields, Northern Barrage. Faulknor, H.M.S.: 221. INDEX 365 Fencer, H.M.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 294-295 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Fighter Catapult Ships: come into service, 163. Fighter Command: see R.A.F. Fighter Command. First World War: no comprehensive A/S history of, 3; Anti-Submarine Division, 1918, 4; views on convoy in, 4; U-boats destroyed by convoy escorts, 5; U-boat tactics, 6; influence of maritime aircraft, 6; A/S measures in Western Approaches, Bristol Channel and English Channel, 7; French coal trade convoys, 7; first convoys, 7; lesson of convoy A/S escort not learnt, 18; proportion of tonnage loss from submarines, 22; numbers and tonnage sunk by U-boats in, 44, 45; German Prize Regulations in, 50; percentage of U-boat attacks at night, 1918, 63; U-boat tactics ignored in Naval War Manual, 64-65; air escorts to convoys, 7; A/S aircraft in Home Waters, in January and November, 1918, 7; increased use of aeroplanes in 1918, 8; decisive effect of A/S aircraft as convoy escorts, 8-9; comparative flying efforts, 1918 and 1943, 8; comparative performance of A/S aircraft and U-boats, 9; A/S experience in Mediterranean, 10; effect of bombing on U-boat bases and yards, 10; summary of results of A/S operations, 10. Fishery Protection and Minesweeping: minesweeping responsibility, 178. Fishguard: seaplane station established in, 1917, 6. Flanders: minefields off coast of in 1914, 148. Fleet Air Arm: aircraft provided solely for fleets, 64; squadrons disembarked from Eagle, 134; at Malta, 134; at Alexandria, 134; at Gibraltar, 135, 136, 137; operations in eastern Mediterranean, 138; anti-E-boat patrols, 198; C.-in-C. Home Fleet remarks on aircraft of, 354. See also Aircraft carriers (escort). Flitgerfuhrer Atlantik: command created, 162; forces of dispersed, 164; U-boat Command asks help from, 164; fighters operate in Bay, 164; organisation dissolved, 164. * Flower’ Class corvettes, see Corvettes. Florida: U-boats off, 82. Flushing: German mining off, 194. Flying-boats: use of in First World War, 7-8, 12. Fog: effect of on convoys and U-boats, 46, 102. Forbes, Admiral Sir Charles: supports views of C.-in-C. H.F. on aircraft situation, 354. Force H: based on Gibraltar, 133; hunts for Hipper, 220; aircraft from sight Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 221; the Bismarck episode, 221. Forester, H.M.S.: 221. Forth: daily convoys from, 30; German minelaying in Firth of, 194, 196. Foxer: anti-acoustic torpedo device, 118. France: fall of, 1940, effect on routeing of convoys, 31, 39; losses and kills up to, 55; effect in narrow seas, 58. Freetown, Sierra Leone: convoy base, 30; SL convoys from, 31; shipping losses off, May 1941, 71; through surface escort instituted from, 71; convoys attacked off, 72, 73; first convoy from, 54; U-boats off, 90; shipping losses off, 94; U-boats leave waters off, 127. ~ Freighters,’ British decoy ships: one deceives Neptune, 222; secrecy surrounding use of, 222, 223. French Coal Trade: convoys instituted, 1917, 7; Rear-Admiral, Falmouth reports the success of, 10. French Revolution, War of: convoy in, 5. French shipping: virtually exempt from attack, 1939, 50. Frigates: * River ‘ class, 19; ‘ Loch ‘ class, 19; U.S. built, 19. Fuelling: problem for convoy escorts, 33; advanced bases improvised for escorts, 60. Furious, H.M.S.: aircraft carrier, 215. Galloper Sands: minefields near, 151. Gardemoen: Condors operate from, 161; Condors cease to use, 163. Gedania, German supply ship: sunk, 78. 366 INDEX Gee: radio navigational aid, 166; adopted by U.S. Air Force, 168. Gee-H: navigational and bombing aid, 168. Germany: U-boat building from 1935, 15, 19; Prize Regulations, observance, 50, 51; restricts naval action for political reasons, 52; invades Russia, June 1941,72; declares war on U.S.A., 81; develops Radar search receiver, 104. German High Command: decides minelaying policy, 152; fails to plan for air attack on shipping, 157. German Air Force: shore-based reconnaissance for U-bo^ts, 60, 161; fighters in Bay of Biscay, 104; inadequate in Mediterranean, 141; minelaying in U.K. waters, 152; forms antishipping force, 157; begins attack on shipping, 158; rarely attacks convoys, 158; ships sunk by, 158, 159, 160; poor navigation by, 161; post of Fliegerfuhrer Atlantik created, 162; last successes of in N.W. Approaches, 163; fighters operate in Bay, 164; period most dangerous to shipping, 164; begins minelaying, 193; minelaying operations by, 194; waters reserved for minelaying by, 194; lays acoustic mines, 195; numbers of aircraft, minelaying, 195; mines laid by to June 1941, 196; less minelaying by, 197; moves aircraft to Russia, 197; minelaying greatly diminishes, 199; mines invasion force anchorage, 200; last minelaying effort by, 201. German Navy: Plans air/U-boat operations, 160; gains control of Condors, 161; loses control of Condors, 162; responsible for mine design, 188; plans for laying ground mines, 188; plans for aircraft minelaying, 188; opens mining offensive, 188; destroyer minelaying, 189, 191; War Staff permits aircraft minelaying, 189. Gibraltar: convoys started to and from, 29, 30, 31, 54; escorts to convoys, 54; through surface escort from, 71; convoys attacked off, 72, 73; U-boats sunk off, 93; Force H based on, 133; convoys suspended and resumed, 135; Area Combined Headquarters, 137; aircraft based on, 138. Gibraltar, Strait of: U-boat losses in, 76, 135-142; effect of patrols in, 78, 230; passage of U-boats through, 78, 134, 135-142; M.A.D. used in, 122, 142; A/S patrols in, 133-146; value of Ark Royal’s aircraft in, 136; air patrols east of, 137; Leigh Light patrols in, 142; U.S. air patrols in, 142; value of control of, 144, 230; analysis of U-boats attempting passage, 317-326. Glasgow, H.M.S.: encounters Admiral Scheer, 218. Glorious, H.M.S.: aircraft carrier, 215. Gneisenau, German battle cruiser: at Brest, 1941-42, 22, 171; in September 1939, 214; at sea with Scharnhorst, 219; encounters Home Fleet, 219; encounters Ramillies, 220; encounters Malaya, 221; sinkings by in N. Atlantic, 221; sighted by Rodney, 221; sighted by aircraft, 221; returns to Germany, 224. Goering, Marshal, C.-in-C. German Air Force: frustrates Raeder’s plans, 190, 193, 194. Gower, Mr. Richard Hall: shipping protection proposal of 1811, 5, 8, 115. GraJ Spec, see Admiral Graf Spee. * Grand Slam* bombs : 169. Graph (ex-£/.<570): capture of, 72. Greek ships: Germans regard as hostile within War Zone, 1939, 51. Greenland: American forces established in, 1941, 51; bad weather off, 72, Group training of A/S forces: not possible before 1943, 19. Groups: unescorted, 39. Guadalcanal, U.S.S., escort carrier: takes part in capture of U.505, 127; outline of service, 294-295 passim; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Guantanamo: convoy system extended to, 32. Gulf of Mexico, see Mexico. Gunfire: U-boats’ use of, 42, 44, 54. Hagenuk, German radar search receiver: 113, 118. Halifax, Nova Scotia: convoy base, 30; replaced by New York, September 1942, 32; average times of convoys to Liverpool, 33; first convoy from, 54. Hamburg: U-boat destroyed in, 128. INDEX 367 Harwich: aircraft minelaying off, 189, 194. ‘ Hedgehog ‘, A/S weapon: 77, 90, 93. Heligoland Bight: measures against U-boats in, 58; mines in, First World War, 148; mining in, Second World War, 150. Hermes, H.M.S.: employed hunting U-boats, 54; with Force Y, 215. HF/DF: organisation, 1939, 67; importance of, 89; the enemy’s views on, 106; U-boats located by, 126, 129. Hipper, German cruiser, see Admiral Hipper. Hitler, Adolf: begins U-boat construction, 14; repudiates Versailles Treaty, 14; denounces Naval Treaty, 18; forbids attacks on liners, 50; permits attack without warning on armed ships, 51; avoids clash with U.S.A., 80; orders to Mediterranean U-boats, 139; decision on minelaying policy, 190; on German naval policy, 214; loses faith in big warships, 224; quarrels with Raeder, 224. Home Fleet: at Scapa, August 1939, 29, 54, 55; encounters Scha.nkorst and Gneisenau, 219; the Bismarck episode, 221; sinks Scharnhorst, 225; C.-in-G. deplores shortage of aircraft, 354. Hook of Holland: German mining off, 194. Hopkins, Harry L., emissary of President Roosevelt: enquiries into escort programme, 18. H2S radar equipment: introduced, 168. H2X: U.S. version of H2S, 168. Hudson A/S aircraft: number in service, 103. Humber: convoy from, to Tyne, 10; avoided by U-boats, 39; ships sunk off, 55; A/S patrols off, 55; aircraft minelaying off, 189, 193, 196, 197, 199. * Hunt’ Class destroyers: design of, 18. Hunter, H.M.S., escort carrier: 294; see also Aircraft carriers (escort). Hunter-Killer groups: capture U.505, 127; period effective, 127, 229; depend on accurate intelligence, 229. Hunting Groups, anti-Surface Raider: formation of, 215. ‘ Hunting Patrols ‘: in First World War, 11, 47; barren results in Second World War, 55. Huntsman, s.s.: sunk by GrafSpee, 217. Hydrophone: the only submarine detector, 1917-18, 6. Icebergs: affect convoy routeing, 46. Iceland: escort bases in, 25, 31, 33, 71, 74; aircraft protection from, 31, 33; U.S. escorted convoys from, 34; stormiest area, Iceland-Newfoundland, 46; German ‘war zone’ extended to, 51; U.570 towed to, 72; Liberator aircraft available from, 74; air cover from, 78, 163; U.S.A. takes over defence of, 80. Icomp: 34. Imperial Defence, Committee of: recommends increased patrol vessel building, 18. Implacable, H.M.S., aircraft carrier: aircraft from destroy U-boat, 128. Imports and Exports: volume influenced by numbers of escort vessels, 36; attempt to speed up by quicker passages, 37. Independent ships: policy in War Plan 1939, 3-4, 29, 40; delays experienced by, 4; high losses in 1917-18, 4-5, 8, 12; Admiralty policy in 1811, 5; losses in American waters, 1942, 11, 25, 41, 42, 66; attacked by gunfire, 11; high proportion of loss to, 20, 38, 39, 40, 42, 54; raider successes against, 22; above 14-9 and below 9 knots excluded from convoy, 29, 31; heavy losses after lowering of upper speed limit for convoy, 37, 40, 61; losses compared with those in convoy, 38, 43, 300—310 passim; losses of, too slow for convoy, 40; losses to 31.5.1940, 54, 56; heavy attacks after fall of France, 58, 59; numbers increased by lowering speed for convoy, 60-61; numbers reduced by higher speed for convoy, 72; lost in Indian Ocean, 99. Indian Ocean: limited convoy system in, 30; U-boat attacks in, 1942, 43; independent losses in, 99; U-boats in, 127. 868 INDEX Inshore Campaign, U-boat: period covered, 125; opening stages of, 126; main U-boat attack in inshore waters, 127. International Law: observance by U-boats, 29, 50, 53. Invasion of Europe, 1944: defence against U-boats, 26, 43. Invasion threat to U.K.: effect on employment of Coastal Command, 22; effect on convoy escorts, 58, 59. Ireland: HX/ON convoys routed south of, 32; KMS/OS convoys routed south of, 33. Irish Sea: no convoys,run, 1917, 8; convoys in 1918, 10; A/S forces in, 1939, 53; U-boats sunk in, 129. Italian Navy: U-boats in Atlantic, 59; U-boats lost, 78, 133, 134; U-boat passages through Strait of Gibraltar, 78, 236; U-boats available, 132; disposition of U-boats, 133; sinkings by U-boats, 134; summary of U-boat losses, 245; chronological list of U-boat losses, 279-281; U-boats lost in Mediterranean, 327-331. Italy: declares war on U.S.A., 81. Jan Mayen Island: raiders refuel near, 220. Japanese surface raiders: operations by, 224. Jellicoe, Admiral of the Fleet Lord: on German submarine menace, 1917, 64. Jervis Bay, H.M.S.: escort of HX 84, attacked by Admiral Scheer, 22, 218. Jumna, s.s.: sunk by Hipper, 219. Kattegat: minelaying in, 154. Kearney, U.S.S.: torpedoed, 81. Kentish Knock: German mining near, 191. Kenya, H.M.S.: sinks Kota Penang, 78. Key West, U.S.A.: convoy system extended to, 32; U-boats operate near, 85. Kiel Bay: U-boats mined in, 154. Killer-Group: operates off Florida, 82. King Alfred, H.M.S.: R.N.V.R. training establishment, 185. King, Admiral E. J.: writes to General Marshall, 78; gives views on convoy, 78. King’s Regulations: convoy directive in, 88. Kite-balloons: use of in A/S operations in First World War, 8, 10. Komet, German auxiliary raider: sunk in Channel, 224. Kormoran: auxiliary raider and supply ship, 77; encounter with Sydney, 222. Kota Penang, German supply ship: sunk, 78. Kretshmer, Otto, U-boat commander: log quoted, 65. Lancaster: British bomber, use as A/S aircraft suggested, 75. La Pallice: U-boats sortie from, 126; U-boat mined off, 154; becomes U-boat base, 171; U-boat bunkers, 171. Leander, H.M.S.: sinks Italian raider, 221. Le Havre: German mining off, 194. Leight Light: introduction of, 68; use by Bay patrols, 104; use by Gibraltar patrols, 142. Lend-Lease Act: U.S. Congress passes, 80. INDEX 369 Liberator, U.S. bomber: use as A/S aircraft, 75, 101; numbers in service, 103; U.S. squadron joins Coastal Command, 106. See also V.L.R. aircraft. Liverpool: coastal convoy base, 30; convoy distance to New York, 33; Western Approaches Command H.Q. moved from Plymouth, 69; German minelaying at, 192, 196, 197. LL. mine sweep: see under Minesweeping. Local Defence Division: minesweeping responsibility, 178. ‘ Loch * Class frigates: design of, 19. Loch Ewe: U-boat mines approaches to, 192. Lochinvar, H.M.S.: Minesweeping Training Establishment, 185. London, Port of: effect of minelaying on, 204. Londonderry: escort base at, 34. Lorient: first U-boat base, Biscay, 58, 171; U-boats sortie from, 126; U-boats mined off, 154; U-boat bunkers, 171. Losses, in shipping; see Shipping. Loss rates, shipping: independent ships, First World War, 5, 12; ships in convoy, First World War, 8, 10; in Second World War, 39, 40, 44, 302-310 passim, 355; ships too slow for convoy, 40; in American waters, 41; after May 1943, 43. Lothringen, German supply ship: sunk, 77. Lutjens, Admiral, German Navy: commands Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 220 ; commands Bismarck and Print Eugen, 221. M.A.C. ships: see Merchant Aircraft Carriers. M.A.D. (Magnetic Airborne Detector): introduced, 122; used in Strait of Gibraltar, 142. Madeira: 89. Magdepur, s.s.: first magnetic mine casualty, 203, 204. Magog, H.M.C.S.: torpedoed, 128. Magpie, H.M.S.: 2nd Escort Group, 120. Mahan, Rear-Admiral A. T., U.S.N.: on commerce warfare, 48. Malaya, H.M.S.: 215; encounters Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 221. Mangold, H.M.S.: sinks U-boat, 135. Marine casualties: decline after 1940, 44—45. Marshall, General G. C.: writes to Admiral King, 78; deplores shipping losses, 78. Mediterranean: First World War, successes of convoy escorts in, 5; bombing of U-boat bases, 10; C.-in-C.’s staff notes, 11; convoy begins in, 1917, 12; closed to shipping, 1939, 29; convoy route extended through, 1943, 30,33; U.S. control of convoys to, 1943, 35; U-boats diverted to, 40; hunting patrols in First World War ineffective, 47; first German U-boats enter, 76; U-boat losses on passage into, 76; shipping losses in, 99; cleared of U-boats, 128; numbers of German U-boats in, 132; first convoys through, 132; phases of A/S war in, 133; entry of German U-boats into, 134; U-boats in Eastern Basin, 138; strategic situation changes in, 139; numbers of U-boats in, 140; reopened to shipping, 140; S.O. Mediterranean U-boats summary of situation, 141; shipping convoyed through, 141; * Swamp ‘ operations in, 143-144; U-boat operations cease in, 144; survey of A/S war in, 145-146; British A/S forces in, 299; German U-boats detailed for, and their fate, 317- 325; German U-boats destroyed in, 328-332; Italian U-boats destroyed in, 328-332; air raids on U-boat bases in, 333. Meeting points: for Atlantic convoys, Homp, Momp and Westomp, 33, 34; off Iceland, Icomp, 34; near Oversay, Eastomp, 34. Merchant Aircraft Carriers (M.A.C. Ships): advent of, 34; in service, 95, 291; Empire Macalpine, 95; with ONS 18, 118; origin, development and use of, 291; ferrying aircraft, 291; summary of activities, 292; general particulars of, 296. Merchant shipping: tonnage lost from U-boats, 44; tonnage damaged, 45; tonnage output, 46. Metox, German radar search receiver: 90, 106; failure of, 107; fitted with ‘ Magic Eye,’ 107; U-boat Command orders concerning, 113; used for passage into Mediterranean, 139. 370 INDEX Mexico, Gulf of: U-boat attacks in, 41, 85; sinkings in, 82; independent sailings in, 85. Michel, German auxiliary raider: at sea, 223, 225; sunk, 225. Micro-H, blind bombing aid: 168. Milch cows: see Supply U-boats. Minches, the: U-boats sunk in, 130. Minefields: types of, 147; object of, 148; deep trap, 129, 151, 153; failure to patrol, 151; effect of when patrolled, 151; blockade fields ineffective, 154. Minelaying (British): in First World War, 148, 149; Northern Barrage, 128, 149, 152, 153; East Coast Barrage, 39, 55, 149, 151, 152, 153; Dover Barrage, 54, 150, 153; North Channel, 149, 152; Heligoland Bight, 150, 153; in English Channel, 151; in Galloper area, 151; Moray Firth, 151; St. George’s Channel, 151, 152, 153; Bay of Biscay, 153; in Baltic, 153, 154; in Kattegat, 154; from the enemy’s point of view, 342-344. Minelaying (Enemy): plans for, 188; plans for, by aircraft, 188; the campaign begins, 188; by U-boats, 188, 190, 192; by destroyers, 189, 191, 193; near Tongue Light Vessel, 189; coastal lights assist, 189; near Sunk Light Vessel, 189; aircraft laying begins, 189; off East Coast U.K., 191, 192; off West Coast U.K., 192; in English Channel, 192, 194, 196, 204; G.A.F. begins operations, 193, 194; E-boats begin operations, 194; up to June 1941, 196; by torpedo boats, 196; aircraft laying reduced, 197, 199; ceases off West Coast, 199; end of first phase, 197; end of second phase, 199; heavy attacks in Bay of Seine, 201; end of final phase, 202; effect on Port of London, 204; E-boats take greater part in, 208; value of convoy against, 208. Mines (British): U-boats destroyed by, 13, 54, 129, 130, 148-152, 231, 334-337, 340, 341; poor quality of First World War, 148; laying by aircraft, 153; in enemy waters, 338, 339; the enemy’s views on, 342-344. Mines (Enemy): losses to ships in convoy, 39; minelayers used, 151; in Channel, 151; off E. Coast, 151; laying by U-boats ceases, 152; German ground magnetic, 187, 188; methods of laying, 188; stocks held in Germany, 188; recovered off Shoeburyness, 189; acoustic mines introduced, 195; combined magnetic-acoustic, 197; pressure (oyster) mines, 200- 201; period of heaviest losses by, 207; losses by in Second Phase, 209; losses by in Third Phase, 209; losses by, general statistics, 228. Minesweepers: very few with asdics, 1939, 18; escorts reinforced by, 1941, 71; number in commission in 1918, 175; new construction between wars, 176, 177; plans to convert trawlers, 177; purchase of trawlers, 177; Admiralty design trawlers, 177; fitting out plans, 178; equipment, 179; proposed mine destructor ship, 180; shortage of fast sweepers, 180; under construction, 1939, 180; disposition, September, 1939, 181; mine destructor ships, 182; aircraft sweepers, 182; strength of fleet, 182; motor minesweepers, 182-184; building abroad, 183; situation, 1940, 1941, 1942, 183; situation 1943, 184; effect of German collapse, 184; manpower required for, 185, 186; details of, 1939-1945, 287-289; numbers in commission, 290. Classes: ‘ Algerine,’ 183, 287; * Bangor,’ 177, 180, 183, 287; ‘ Bridgewater,’ 176; B.A.M.S., American, 184, 288; B.Y.M.S., American, 183, 184, 288; * Dance,’ 177, 288; ‘Flower,’ 176, 290 (footnote); * Grimsby,’ 176; ‘Halcyon,’ 176, 287; ‘Hastings,’ 176; ‘ Hebe,’ 287; ‘ Hunt,’ 176; M.M.S., 183, 289; improved type, 183, 184, 289; ‘ Scottish Isles,’ 177, 288 ; ‘ Shakespeare,’ 177, 288; * Shoreham,’ 176; ‘ Tree,’ 177, 180, 181, 288; ZZ. Craft, 289. Minesweeping: Organisation overhauled, 178; operational authorities for, 178; Naval War Plan, 178, 179; general organisation for, 179; equipment, 179; Division created, 178; no influence mine sweeps, 179-180; War Plan executed, 180; forces available, 180; the magnet sweep, 182, 204; mine destructor ships, 182; the LL. sweep, 182; officers trained in, 185; training establishment, 185; personnel engaged in, 186. Minesweeping Division: formed, 178. Minor war vessels: destroy only six U-boats, 19. Moray Firth: U-boat attacks in, 39; shipping focused upon by mine barrage, 55; losses off, 55; A/S patrols ineffective in, 55; British minefields in, 151; U-boat lays mines in, 192. Morison, Professor S. E., U.S. historian: quoted, 41, 42. Moroccan Sea Frontier: Allied aircraft operate from, 111. Mozambique Channel: U-boat sinkings in, 100. Munich agreement, 1938: plans hurriedly improvised after, 18. Musketry, A/S patrol area in Bay: 110; Archer operating in, 111. INDEX 371 Naiad, H.M.S.: sights German raiders, 219. Nairana, H.M.S., escort carrier: 294; operates with 2nd Escort Group, 120. Napoleonic War: convoy in, 5. Naval Control Service: 29, 205. Naval Staff: views on aircraft with convoys, 1918, 10; specifies 20 knots as minimum for A/S vessels, 18. Naval War Manual (1947): quoted, 64, 66. Naxos, new German radar search receiver: 142. Neptune, H.M.S.: with Force K, 215; deceived by British decoy ship, 222. Nestor, H.M.S.: sinks U-boat, 136. Neutral shipping: excluded from convoy, Western Approaches, 1939, 29; German instructions to, 1939, 50-51. Neutrality Patrol, United States: 80; extension of, 80. Newhaven: German mines off, 194. New York: replaces Halifax for convoy assembly, 32; convoy distance to Liverpool, 33. Newfoundland: convoy meeting point south of, 33; escort base at St. John’s, 34, 71; American escort groups based on Argentia, 34, 80; stormiest area, Iceland-Newfoundland, 46, 72; effect of fogs on Banks, 102; V.L.R. aircraft based on, 106. Newlyn: seaplane station established in 1917, 6. Night attacks by surfaced U-boats: in First World War, 6; in Second World War, 63, 64. Night A/S measures: not developed, 65. Nordmark, German supply ship: 77. Norfolk, U.S.A.: convoy system extended to, 32. Normandy, Allied landings in: special conditions in A/S warfare, 26; German minelaying in invasion area, 201; the E-boat effort in invasion area, 201. North Africa: ocean convoys to, 30; Allies land in, 32, 139, 140; effect of operations in, 88 ; Coastal Air Force, 140. North African Coastal Air Force: created, 140. North Atlantic: U-boats enter southern half of, 77; choice of routes in, 81; sinkings in, 82; sinkings, June 1943, 99; summary of Coastal Command operations in, 229, 230. Northern Barrage: see Mines/Minefields/Minelaying. North Channel: convoys diverted through, 31, 39, 58, 59; minefields in, 149, 152. Northern Europe, invasion of: see Operation ‘ Overlord ‘ and Normandy, Allied landings in. North Russia convoys: attacked, 89; losses in, 89; escort carrier with, 89; U-boat kills by escorts, 127, 129; escort carriers with, 292-296 passim; performance of escort carriers with, 311-316 passim. North Sea: airship A/S patrols, First World War, 6; mined areas declared in, 55; effect of minefields on shipping and U-boat operations, 55. Northern Transit Area: Coastal Command patrols in, 100, 107, 110; air patrols maintained in, 120; U-boats destroyed in, 125; summary of Coastal Command operations in, 229. Norway: watch on German heavy ships in, 22; U-boats deployed off, 1944, 26; exodus of U-boats to, 1945, 27; 1940 campaign causes lull in anti-shipping operations, 39; U-boats sunk during campaign, 55; Germans gain new bases in, 58; U-boats from bases in, 125; U-boats make for bases in, 126. North-West Approaches: A/S searches in, 54. Northern Ireland: escort base at Londonderry, 34; Liberator aircraft available from, 74. Norwegian trade: convoy system, 7, 39. Oboe: radar navigational and bombing aid introduced, 168. Ocean Convoy: see Convoy. 372 INDEX * Offensive Action ‘: need for care in defining, 47. Operational task of U-boat killer: analysis of, 4. Orfordness: first magnetic mine casualty off, 203. Ostend: bombing of U-boat base at, First World War, 10; British lay magnetic mines off, 188: German mining off, 194. Otranto: Barrage operations, 12, 49; considered * offensive,’ 12; failure of Barrage, 12, 49. Operation * Overlord ‘: invasion of Northern Europe, 123; A/S preparations for, 125; Coastal Command dispositions for, 125; R.C.N. M/S flotilla takes part in, 237; see also * Normandy, Allied landings in.’ Pack tactics: failure of in War between England and Spain, 1585-1604, 62. Panama: Act of, 80; U-boats in Canal approaches, 83. Pan-American conference: passes Act of Panama, 80. Panther, H.M.S.: damaged by aircraft, 139. Patrol Vessels: building of deferred, 1938, 17; increased building of, 1939, 18. Patrolling: belief in as an effective A/S measure, 3, 4. Patrols, A/S, air: in First World War, 6-8; failure of in First World War, 7-8. Patrols, A/S, air: Second World War, started November 1939, 22; U-boat transit area patrols, 1942-43, 24-25; U-boat kills, 1943, 24-25; development of U-boat transit patrols, 1941, 25; losses of aircraft, 24, 26; in S.W. Approaches, 1944, 26: successes against surfaced U-boats, 1944, 26; in transit areas, a summary, 115; flow of U-boats unimpeded by, 116; successes against U-boats, 125-130; from Gibraltar, 133-146; from Algeria, 139; U-boat sinkings by, 139. Patrols, A/S, submarine: failure of in Adriatic, 1918, 12; sink U-boat off Norway, 130, 156; successes in Mediterranean, 134, 140; U-boats destroyed by, First and Second World Wars, 155, 156; in the Mediterranean, 155, 156; handicaps on, 156. Patrols, A/S, surface: failure of in 1918, 4-5, 7-8, 47; operations by, June 1944-May 1945 125-130. Patrols, A/S: 1918 report on, and Protection of Merchant Shipping by, 4. Pearl Harbour: Japanese attack on, 32. Penang: U-boats operate from, 127; U-boats leave, 127. Percussion: A/S patrol area in Bay, 111. Pinguin, German auxiliary raider: sunk by Cornwall, 222. Plans: war, in 1939, 4. Plymouth: seaplane station established in 1917, 6; escort base for HX convoys, 30; Western Approaches Command H.Q.. moved to Liverpool, 69; German minelaying at, 196. Pola: air offensive against, 1918, 12; U-boat base, 140. Port Said: convoy route extended to, 1943, 30. Portsmouth: convoys to and from, 39; U-boat mines approaches to, 192; aircraft mine approaches to, 194. Prinz, Eugen, German cruiser: at Brest, 171; accompanies Bismarck, 221; returns to Germany 224. Prize Regulations, German: observance of, 51, 53. Pursuer, H.M.S., escort carrier: 294. Python, German supply ship: sunk, 78. ‘ Q.* System: failures of, 204, 205; Germans decypher ‘ Q/ messages, 205. INDEX 373 Radar: vafue of from 1943, 19, 23; fitted in Coastal Command aircraft, 68, 74; shipborne, 89; search receiver, 90, 104; effect of 10-centimetre, 92, 107; A.S.V. Mk. 2 in aircraft, 101; the enemy’s views on, 106; in night patrol aircraft, 106; American 10 cm., 107; 10 cm. in Gibraltar patrols, 142. Radio-telephony: fitted in escort craft, 68. Raeder, Admiral, C.-in-C. German Navy: his mining policy, 189; Goering’s failure to cooperate with, 190; difficulties with Goering, 193, 194; plans for German naval construction, 214; quarrels with Hitler and resigns, 224. Raiders, Surface, Enemy: limited success of, 22; sink very few convoyed ships, 39; Naval War Manual on threat of, 64; operational orders to, 214; first auxiliary raiders sail, 218; number at sea, 1941, 219; number at sea, 1942, 223; co-operate with U-boats, 223; Japanese raiders, 224; numbers operated, 225; equipment and methods of, 225, 226; use of aircraft by, 226; value of convoy against, 226. Ramb 1, Italian surface raider: sunk by Leander, 221. Ramillies, H.M.S.: sights German raiders, 220; reports sighting Hippcr, 220. Rattray Head, northern end of East Coast Mine Barrage: 55. Refrigerator ships: loss of, 43. Refuelling: of escorts at sea, 33, 81. Renown, H.M.S.: 215. Reports, Monthly A/S: Admiralty publication, reference to, 91, 92, 96. Repulse, H.M.S.: 215. Rescue ships: with convoys in First World War, 45; re-introduced January 1941, 45. Research: omissions in, during and after First World War on A/S and U-boat operations, 4. Reserve Fleet; mobilised 1939, 29. Restricted warfare: see U-boat warfare. Reuben James, U.S.S.: sunk, 81. Reykjavik: U-boats in approaches to, 127. Rio de Janeiro: convoy system extended to, 32, 89; U-boats off, 100. * Risk Theory ‘: explained, 237. Rockets: U-boat kills by Coastal Command aircraft, April 1945, 27; first use of against U-boats, by Archer, 294. Rodney, H.M.S.: sights Gneisenau, 221. Roosevelt, President U.S.A.: 80. Routeing of convoys: 31, 33, 39-40; see also Evasive routeing. R.A.F. Bomber Command: bombing of Biscay bases, 60, 171; destroy U-boats in Bergen, 128; lacking strength, 166; inadequate navigational aids, 166; inadequate bombing aids, 166; total bomb lift of, 166; number of squadrons, 166; introduces Gee, 166; introduces Oboe, 168; introduces H2S, 168; uses Mk. IX bombsight, 168; introduces Mk. XIV bombsight, 168; bombing accuracy of, 168; bomb development, 169; ‘ Tallboys ‘ and * Grand Slams,’ 169; bombs U-boat yards and industries, 171; gives attention to Brest, 171; anti-U-boat bombing ineffective, 171; U-boats destroyed by, 172-174; enjoys priority in supply of aircraft, 354. R.A.F. Coastal Command: comparison with A/S aircraft operations in First World War, 8-9; strength, 1939, 21; main task reconnaissance, 22; no provision for A/S operations, 1939, 22, 67; failure of anti-raider patrols, 22; A/S operations initiated November 1939, 22; effect of redeployment in N.W. approaches, 22; effect of watch on Norway and Brest, 22; decisive role in Battle of Atlantic, 23, 229, 230; U-boat kills up to August 1942, 23; U-boat transit area patrols, 1942-43, 24-25; U-boat kills, 1943, 24; convoy escort and support more profitable than patrols, 24, 26, 229, 230; lack of very long range aircraft, 1941-43, 25; kills by air escorts and supports, 1943, 25; effect of Schnorkel, 26; * Second Front,’ 1944, 26; rocket-firing aircraft, April 1945, 27; North Sea reconnaissance from 24th August 1939, 29, 54; occasional flying-boat protection to 8°W., 30; U-boats driven further into Atlantic, 40; begins reconnaissance patrols, August 1939, 54T; employed on anti-invasion patrols, 58; lack of airfields near N.W. Approaches, 59; primary role reconnaissance, 64; fitting of radar in Aircraft, 68; under operational control of Admiralty, 69; range of Whitley and Wellington aircraft, 73; reorganisation of Command’s methods, 73; need for V.L.R. aircraft, 74; origin of, 74; primary role of, 74; operations in Bay of Biscay, 374 INDEX 100, 229; patrols in Northern Transit Area, 100, 229; despatches, 102; change of views in, 102; strength of A/S aircraft, 103; A/S aircraft ranges, 103; policy in 1941, 103; reviews, 1941, 104; C.-in-C’s views on A/S policy, 105; U.S. Liberator Squadron joins, 106; patrols in Bay defeated, 106; a balanced force, 122; dispositions for * Overlord,’ 125; provides fighter escort for convoys, 162; bombs U-boat bases, 171; anti-E-boat patrols, 198; G.-in-C. Home Fleet deplores inadequate strength of, 354. R.A.F. Coastal Command Squadrons: No. 202, patrols Strait of Gibraltar, 133; locate Italian U-boaty 133; No. 120, becomes operational, 101; staves off disaster in mid-Atlantic, 105. R.A.F. Fighter Command: shipping defence duties of, 158; reorganises defence of shipping, 159; shipping defence sorties by, 160. R.A.F. Gibraltar: A/S patrols by, 78, 133, 135, 136; increase of forces, 138. R.A.F. Mediterranean: Sunderlands at Alexandria, 134; sinks Italian U-boats, 134; Sunderlands at Crete, 134; escorts convoys, 134. Royal Canadian Navy: escort of Atlantic convoys, 33, 34, 35; 31st M/S flotilla takes part in ‘Neptune,’ 237. Russia, German invasion of: effect on A/S escort forces, 72. Russian convoys: Coastal Command cover for, 22, 23; suspended March to September 1943, 23; escort carriers with, 291-296 passim, 311, 312, 313-316; inadequate air cover for, 354. St. Albans Head: U-boat mines off, 192. St. George’s Channel: A/S patrols instituted in, 1939, 54; minefields in, 151, 152. St. John’s: see Newfoundland. St. Nazaire: U-boats sortie from, 126; becomes U-boat base, 171; U-boat bunkers, 171. St. Paul Rocks: German supply ships near, 77. Salamis: U-boat base, 140. Sangamon, U.S.S., escort carrier: 293. Santee, U.S.S., escort carrier: supports convoys, 99, 293-4. Scandinavia: First World War, convoy system to, 7, 12. Scandinavia: Second World War, convoy system to, 29; losses in, 39, 55; escorts sink two U-boats, 55. Scandinavian shipping: routes affected by mined areas, 55. Scapa: Home Fleet at, August 1939, 54, 55; U-boat route close to, 55; aircraft minelaying at, 194. Scharnhorst, German battle cruiser: at Brest, 1941-42, 22, 171; in September 1939, 214; at sea with Gneisenau, 219; encounters Home Fleet, 219; encounters Ramillies, 220; encounters Malaya, 221; sinkings by, in N. Atlantic, 221; sighted by aircraft, 221; returns to Germany, 224; sunk by Home Fleet, 225. Scheer, German pocket battleship: see Admiral Scheer. Schelde: midget U-boats off, 129; German mining off, 194. Schiff II, German minelayer: lays field near Fairy Bank, 191. Schnorkel device in U-boats: problem presented by, 19; fitting of, general from autumn of 1944, 26,43; a Dutch invention, 123; first U-boat fitted with, 123; robs aircraft of effectiveness, 128, 229. Scillies: seaplane station established in 1917, 6. Scotland: passage of U-boats north of, First World War, 6; shipping routed north of, 31, 39, 58; hunting U-boats north of, 54-55. Sea lines of communication: fallacious doctrine of, 42, 49. Seaplanes: use of, in First World War, 6-8, 12. Seaslug, A/S patrol area in Bay: 110. Seine, Bay of: heavy minelaying in, 201. Seine, River: German mining in, 194. Sheringham Bank: German mining near, 191. INDEX 375 Shetland: patrol north of, 54. Shipping losses: analysis of, in First World War, early in 1917, 7; in French coal trade convoys, 10; in Mediterranean in 1918, 12; Second World War up to December 1941, 20; in ocean convoys, 36-37, 39-43, 54; to independent shipping, 11, 25, 37-38, 40-42, 54-56, 66; in Coastal and Scandinavian convoys, 39; and U-boat kills to fall of France, 55; by U-boat attack, April-December 1941, 78; January and February 1942, 82; March 1942, 82; April 1942, 82; May 1942, 82; June 1942, 82; in U.S. waters, 84; in August 1942, 89; in September 1942,89; off Trinidad, 89; in ON 127, 89; in October 1942,89; in SL 125, 89; in November 1942, 90; in S.E. Atlantic, 90; Caribbean, 90; off Brazil, 90; in ONS 154, 90; in December 1942, 91; in January 1943, 91; in February 1943, 91; in March 1943, 91; in April 1943, 91; off S. Africa, 99; in Mediterranean, 99; in Atlantic and Caribbean, 99; occurring in absence of air escorts, 105; in mid-Atlantic, 105; faulty statistics on, 115, 116; in September, October, November, 1944, 128; in December 1944, 129; in January 1945, 129; in February, March, April 1945, 130; by air attack, 158, 159, 160, 161, 228; by mines, 203-211, 228; by surface raiders, 216-225, 228 ; percentage by U-boat independents, 228; general notes and statistics on, 300-3 10 passim, 355; air escort in relation to, 355. Ships: object of the enemy’s attacks, 49. Ship Lane Patrol: 84. Shipping: control of, 29, 34-35; diversion of from East Coast, 53; air attack on begins, 158; few air attacks on convoys, 158; Fighter Command and defence of, 158; heavy air attacks on, 159, 160, 161. Shipping Defence Advisory Committee, 1937: 63. Shipwash Light Vessel: German mining near, 191. Shoeburyness: first magnetic mines recovered off, 189. Shropshire, H.M.S.: 215. Sierra Leone: see Freetown. Sight, Angular velocity: introduced in Coastal Command, 1943, 24. Sloops: not suitable for North Atlantic, 19. Solomons, U.S.S., escort carrier: 295. Sonobuoy, A/S detecting device: introduced, 122. * Snowflake ‘ illumination: introduced 1941, 67. South Africa: U-boat attacks off, 1942, 42, 99. South America: U-boat attacks off, 1942, 42. South Atlantic: shipping losses in, 90; U-boats in, 127. South Coast, Great Britain: convoy losses, 39. South-West Approaches: aircraft carriers operated in, 1939, 54. Southend: convoys to and from, 30, 39. Southern Pride, whale catcher: prototype of * Flower ‘ class corvettes, 18. Spain: Italian U-boats operate off, 59; U-boats to refuel in Vigo, 135. Speed: effect of convoy speed on losses, 36. Speed of ships in convoy: 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 40, 43, 60, 72. Spezia: U-boat base, 140. Squid, A/S weapon: introduction of, 122. Stalker, H.M.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 293-4 passim. Starling, H.M.S.: 2nd Escort Group, 120. Statistics: of U-boats destroyed in First World War, 4 ; of shipping sunk in First World War, 4; of shipping sunk in Second World War, 38-39. Stavanger, Norway: U-boats operate from, 58; Condors operate from, 161. Stephen Hopkins, U.S. merchant ship: sinks raider Stier, 224. Stewart, H.M.S.: sinks Italian U-boat, 134. Stier, German auxiliary raider: at sea, 223; sunk by U.S. ship Stephen Hopkins, 224. 376 INDEX Stragglers from convoy: routes for, 1943, 33; in relation to convoy size, 37; numbers diminished, 1941, 40; curtailed by continuous air escort, 43; hard fate of, 1940, 59; attacks on, January 1941, 66; efforts to eliminate, 162. Strait of Dover: see Dover, Strait of. Strasbourg, French battleship: 215. Striker, H.M.S., escort carrier: 295; performs highest individual carrier effort, 312. Striking Forces: see Anti-submarine striking forces. Submarines, British: design of, 64. Submarine A/S patrols: see Patrols. Suez Canal route: closed, 1940 to 1943, 30. Sunderland A/S aircraft: numbers in service, 103; operate in Mediterranean, 134. Sunk Light Vessel: enemy minefield near, 189. Supply Ships, German: at Canary Islands, 77; near St. Paul Rocks, 77; fCormoran, 77. Supply U-boats: under construction, 78; first one enters U.S. waters, 85; in N. Atlantic, 85 ; destruction of, 100; summary on, 239, 241. Support Group(s): with SC 123, 91; number active in N. Atlantic, 95; composition of, 95; operations of, 95, 96; U-boats sunk by, 96; success against U-boats, 125-130. Surface A/S patrols: see Patrols. Surface attacks, night: by U-boats in First World War, 6; in Second World War, 63-65; failure to develop measures against, 65. Surface Raiders: see Raiders, Surface, Enemy. Sussex, H.M.S.: 215. Suwannee, U.S.S., escort carrier: 293. Swamp: U-boat hunting method, 143; success of, 143, 144. Swept Channels: First World War, 5, 178; Second World War, 178, 179. Swinemiinde: U-boats mined off, 154. Swordfish aircraft: in Avenger, 89; float-fitted R.A.F. at Gibraltar, 133; naval, at Gibraltar, 133, 135, 136, 137; value of A.S.V. equipment in, 136; decisive element in Strait of Gibraltar, 136; lack of robustness, 312, 313; shortcomings of, 313; compared with Avengers, 312, 313. Sydney, Cape Breton: SC convoys started from, 31. Sydney, H.M.A.S.: encounter with Kormoran, 222. Tactics, U-boats: in First World War, not taken into account between the wars, 6; pack attacks develop, 62; night surface attacks, 63-65; in U.S. waters, 81; in Bay of Biscay, 104,109; proposed new, 119, 120; pack tactics cease in Atlantic, 122; in inshore campaign, 127; for passage through Strait of Gibraltar, 135-137, 139, 140. Tairoa, S.S.: sunk by GrafSpee, 216. * Tallboys ‘ (bombs): 169. Tankers: refuelling of escorts by, 33; sinkings of, 41; targets of particular value for U-boats, 51. Tees: German mining off, 193. Thames: daily convoys from, 30; ships sunk off, 55. Thames Estuary: end of East Coast Barrage off, 55; A/S patrols off, 55; lights extinguished in, 189; enemy minefields in, 189, 191; aircraft minelaying in, 189, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199; inadequacy of patrols in, 191; mine casualties in, 204. Thetis, radar decoy buoy: laid in Bay, 119. Thomas C. Stone, U.S.S.: torpedoed in * Torch ‘ convoy, 139. Thor, German auxiliary raider: actions with Alcantara and Carnarvon Castle, 218, 221; sinks Voltaire, 221, 222; second cruise of, 223; end of, 224. Togo, German auxiliary raider: last raider to sail, 225. INDEX 377 Tongue Light Vessel: enemy minefield near, 189. * Torch/ Operation: landings in North Africa, 32; U-boat action against, 139; Area Combined H.Q,. at Algiers, 140; see also North Africa. Torpedoes: acoustic, use of by U-boats, 20; homing, use of by U-boats, 73. Torpex: use in depth-charges from mid-1942, 23. Tracker, H.M.S., escort carrier: outline of service, 294-295 passim. Training, anti-submarine: affected by shortage of ships, 49. * Tramlines ‘ scheme for shipping: not adopted, 60. Transit areas of U-boats: air attacks on, 1942, 25; 1943, 26; summary of Coastal Command operations, 229; see also Northern Transit area, Biscay, Bay of. Trawlers, Anti-Submarine: employed on hunting operations off Scotland, 55; in Western Approaches, 59, 68; lent to U.S.A., 82. Trinidad: convoy system extended to, 32, 41; U-boats off, 83; losses off, 89. Tyne: convoy from to Humber, 10; to Thames, 30; German mining off, 191, 193, 196. U-boat Bases: effect of bombing, First World War, 10; Second World War, 16, 48, 49, 60, 128, 171, 230, 333; results of bombing in Mediterranean, 333. U-boat Command: views of, 92, 106; ignorant of 10 cm. radar, 107; comments on Bay attacks, 107, 108; new policy of, 108; G.A.F. and, 109; orders to U-boats, 109, 110; reviews the situation, 113; admits defeat by escorts, 119; estimates delays to U-boats, 120; records adverse conditions for U-boats, 121; opinions of on refuelling of U-boats, 122; policy for Mediterranean, 136; co-operation with Fliegerfuhrer Atlantik, 162. U-boats, German, First World War: analysis of kills, 4; Admiralty presages defeat by, 4; effect of increase in numbers operational in 1917, 4; inappropriate analysis of destruction of, 4; inshore operations, 5; destruction by convoy escorts, 5; tactics by day and by night, 6; means of detection, 6, 9; decisive influence of A/S aircraft on, 6-8, 9-10; ineffectiveness of A/S patrols against, 4-5, 7; sink few ships in convoy, 4-5, 7-8, 10; fall in gunfire attacks by, 10; one sunk in Otranto Barrage, 1918, 12; proportion of losses inflicted by, 22; sunk by mines, 333-337. U-boats, German, Second World War: production of, 14-15; numbers in service at start of war, 15; changes in design, 15; prefabrication of, 15; production of old types reduced as a result, 15; effect of bombing on production, 16; high surface speed, 18; surface attacks too dangerous, 1943, 19; A/S vessels sunk by, 20; policy of attacking escorts, 20; policy of attacking independent ships, 20, 23; destruction of by Coastal Command up to mid- 1942, 23; defeated in June 1943, 24-25; sunk by Coastal Command, 1943, 24-25; forced into mid-Atlantic, 1941, 25; in American waters, 1942, 25; again defeated September 1943, 25-26; redeployment in 1944, 26; fitted with Schnorkel, 1944, 26; failure in Invasion Area, 1944, 26; mobility reduced by Schnorkel, 26; individual patrols, 26-27; destruction by rocket-firing aircraft, 1945, 27; effective until Germany occupied, 49; instructions to, Prize Regulations, 50; to sink all ships on sight, 51; first sinkings by aircraft, 55; analysis of losses to 31.5.1940, 55; operate from Biscay and Norway bases, 58; * happy time ‘ for ace commanders, 59; reconnaissance for, by shore-based aircraft, 60; loss of three ace commanders, 61; 300 estimated before the war, 66; headquarters moved to Paris, 69; concentration off Strait of Gibraltar, 76; number in commission, 76; deployment of, 76; operate in Freetown area, 77; numbers sunk April-December 1941, 78; passage through Strait of Gibraltar, 78, 317-326; refrain from attacks on U.S. ships, 81; begin attacks off U.S., 81; operate off Cape Hatteras, 81; tactics used by, 81; off Florida, 82; in Caribbean, 82; sunk in U.S. waters, 82, 84; off Aruba, Cura9ao, Trinidad, 83; numbers in U.S. waters, 84, 85; effect of convoy on, 85; in U.S. waters, mid-1942, 85; numbers of hunts on, 88; sunk in August 1942, 89; sunk in September 1942, 89; sunk in November 1942, 89 ; numbers in Atlantic, 91; sunk off Brazil, 91; attack convoys, 89, 90, 91; attack HX 230, 91; attack SC 123, 91; reluctance to attack convoys, 92; kept down by aircraft, 92; losses in May 1943, 93; redeployed, 93; attack ONS 5, 93; attack ONS 7, 93; sunk by Support Groups, 95, 96; redeployment of, 99; sunk by escorts and supports, 99; mastered by escorts and supports, 99, 229, 230; destroyed July-August 1943, 100; re-equipping completed, 100; handicapped by fog, 102; how deployed, 102; tactics in Bay of Biscay, 104; casualties in Bay, 104, 229; increase of night attacks on, 106; new equipment for, 108, 109; attacks on in Bay, 108, 109, 110, 111, 230; tactics of in Bay, 109; sunk by escorts in June 1943, 110; losses in July 1943, 113; equipped with acoustic torpedo, 117; resume attacks on N. Atlantic convoys, 117, 118; attack ON 202 and ONS 18, 118; attack SC 143, 118; move to N.E. Atlantic, 118, 119; unable to find 378 INDEX convoys, 119; aircraft co-operate with, 119; proposed new tactics, 119; lay radar decoy buoys, 119; attacking singly, 120; effect of extra armour and guns on, 121; difficulties experienced, 121; sunk by escorts, January-May 1944, 121; refuelling west of Gape Verdes, 122; sunk by U.S. hunter/killer groups, 122; and refuelling at sea, 122; destroyed September 1943-Mqy 1944, 122; concentration in Norway and Biscay, 123; first fitted with Schnorkel, 123; husbanded against invasion, 123; begin inshore campaign, 125; from Norway bases, 125; destruction of, 125; sorties from Biscay bases, 126; destroyed in Channel, 126; make for Norway, 126; difficult to detect, 126; tactics of, 127; difficulties imposed on, 127; general deployment of, 127; sinkings by, 127; withdrawn from overseas, 127; £7.505 captured, 127; cleared from Mediterranean, 128; use Orkneys-Faroes passage, 129; increased number in Atlantic, 129; operating in Channel, 129; midget type off Scheldt, 129; sunk in inshore waters, 129; in Irish Sea, 129; destroyed in February, March, April 1945, 130; numbers in Mediterranean, 132; passages into Mediterranean, 135-142, 317-325; sink Ark Royal, 135; to refuel in Spanish ports, 135; passage tactics through Strait of Gibraltar, 135, 136, 137; dispositions of, in Mediterranean, 136, 137; operations in Eastern Mediterranean, 138; concentrate in Western Mediterranean, 139; and Operation * Torch,’ 139; Groups Delphin and Tummler enter Mediterranean, 139; strength in Mediterranean, 140, 143; swamp operations against, 143, 144; eliminated in Mediterranean, 144; sunk by mines, 54, 129, 130, 148-152, 154, 231, 339-341; minelaying by, 151, 152, 188, 192; cease minelaying off East Coast, 152; assisted by air reconnaissance, 160, 161; destroyed by bombing, 172-174, 230, 231, 332; analysis of ships sunk by, 228; a summary of losses, 228, 242-3, 248; chronological list of losses, 251-278; destroyed by carrier aircraft, 313-316; detailed for Mediterranean —their fate, 317-326; U-boats and Strait of Gibraltar, 325, 326; destroyed in Mediterranean, 326-332; British mining against, the enemy’s view, 342; capabilities of, 1939, 356. U-boats (Italian): operate in Atlantic, 59; sunk, April-December 1941, 78; passage through Strait of Gibraltar, 78, 236; available in 1940, 132; dispositions of, 133; destroyed, 133, 134; sinkings by, 134; summary of losses, 246; chronological list of losses, 279-281; destroyed in Mediterranean, 328-332. U-boats (Japanese): method of employment, 156; destroyed by Allied action, 156; summary of losses, 247; chronological list of losses, 282-286. U-boat production: 1935-45, 15; effect of bombing on, 171, 172-174. U-boat Warfare: see also Anti-submarine warfare. No comprehensive history of U-boat warfare written after First World War, 3; unrestricted, 3, 4; restricted, 3; effect on 1939 war plan, 4; introduction of ocean convoy forces U-boats inshore in 1917, 5; two U-boat wars show convoy to be the most effective counter, 5; tactics of U-boats in First World War, 6; night surface attacks in 1918, 6; possibility of surface attack not taken into account after First World War by British, 6; too great reliance on asdics for U-boat detection, 6; effect of maritime aircraft in 1917-18 on, 6-7, 9; in 1939 not expected far from U-boat bases, 18; effect of A/S air cover and radar, 1943, 19; anti-escort operations, 20; against independent ships, 20, 22-23, 25; seriousness of in First World War, 22; effect of Schnorkel on, 26-27. U-boat Warfare, Second World War: tonnage sunk by, 38; facilitated by East Coast Mine Barrage, 39; independent ship targets, 39-40; diversion of U-boats to Mediterranean, 1941, 40; switches to American seaboard, 1942, 40-41; no ships in convoy sunk by gunfire, 42, 44; spreads beyond N. Atlantic, 1942, 42-43; failure of after May 1943, 43; end of pack attacks, autumn 1943, 43; use of Schnorkel, 43; shipping sunk in First and Second World Wars, 44; comparison between, in First and Second World Wars, 44; average size of ships sunk, 45; convoy most effective counter to, 47-48; ships the object of, 49; not stopped tilt Germany occupied, 49; Prize Regulations, 50-52; War Zones, 50-52; attacks on liners withheld till August 1940, 50; sink on sight policy, 51; political restrictions on, 51-52; effect of Dover Mine Barrage on, 54; policy to attack merchant shipping, 54; * exchange rate ‘ of ships and U-boats sunk, to June 1940, 55-56; start of pack attacks, autumn 1940, 61, 62, 66; end of pack attacks, autumn 1943, 61; shipping sunk by in the two World Wars, 44; Newfoundland fogs and, 102; effect of aircraft in, 102; Coastal Command and, 102; Coastal Command Review comments on, 104; effect of Schnorkel on, 123; conditions in English Channel, 123; in inshore waters, 125, 126; aspects of in 1944, 127; declines on convoy routes, 127; in Atlantic and Inshore, 129; enemy’s view of, in Mediterranean, 141; ceases in Mediterranean, 144; co-operation with aircraft, 161. Unrestricted warfare, First World War: 4; Admiralty views on, 1937, 17; German Prize Regulations, 50; extension of, 50-52; War Plan dispositions for, 53. United Kingdom: staff talks with U.S.A., 80. United States: Navy advocates convoy, 13; views on convoy, Second World War, 13; U-boat attacks off eastern seaboard, 1942, 23, 25, 41, 42, 44, 59; start of coastal convoys, 1942, 30, 32, 37; starts to escort Atlantic convoys, September 1941, 32; entry into Second World War, 32, 35, 40; forces freed from Atlantic convoys, 33; Joint Basic War Plan No. 1 (ABCI), 34; British and U.S.A. Zones, 34-35; merchant tonnage built by, 46; delay in adopting convoy INDEX 379 * defensive,* 48; ships exempt from German attack, 51; naval forces permitted to attack U-boats, 1941, 52; transfer of 50 destroyers to Britain, 69; transfer of 10 coastguard cutters, 72; signs Defence Pact with Canada, 80; exchanges destroyers for bases, 80; staff talks with U.K., 80; takes over defence of Iceland, 80; escorts convoys, 80; forces first clash with U-boats, 81; forces ordered to attack U-boats, 81; naval doctrine between wars, 81; declares war on Japan, 81; U-boats open, attack offcast coast of, 81; unprepared, 81, 82; A/S vessels lent to, 82; first U-boat sunk off, 82; A/S vessel building policy, 83; revives * Q/ ships, 84; ships lost in waters of, 84; effect of convoy in waters of, 85; U-boats in waters of, 85, 127. United States Army: Air Force has all shore-based aircraft, 82; A/S patrols by, 82; A/S patrols in Bay, 111; adopts Gee, 168; adopts H2X, 168; uses Norden bombsight, 168; bombing tactics of, 169; types of bombs used, 169; bombing method of, 169; bombs Biscay bases, 171. United States Navy: advocates convoy, First World War, 13; views on convoy, 13; starts coastal convoys, 30, 32, 37; escorts Atlantic convoys, 32, 80, 81; freed from Atlantic convoys, 33; permitted to attack U-boats, 52; transfers destroyers to Britain, 69; transfers coastguard cutters, 72; ordered to attack U-boats, 81; doctrine between wars, 81; unprepared, 81, 82; A/S vessels lent to, 82; first U-boat sunk, 82; A/S vessel building policy, 83; revives ‘ Q/ ships, 84; Catalina squadron at Gibraltar. 142. ‘ Venturer, H.M.S.: sinks U.864, 156. Vernon, H.M.S.: responsibilities vis-cl-vis minesweepers, 178. Versailles, Treaty of: 14; German repudiation of disarmament clauses, 14. V.L.R. (very long range) aircraft: advent of, 23; number available, February 1943, 25, 26; Coastal Command need for, 74; a vital need, 91; numbers available, 92; support SC 129, 93; ward off attacks, 94; numbers in May 1943, 95; where based, 95; mentioned, 101, 102; effects of absence of, 104; enemy remarks on, 105; more squadrons in service, 106; operate from Newfoundland, 106. Vigo: U-boats to refuel in, 135. Vindex, H.M.S., escort carrier: U-boat kills by, 121; outline of service, 295. Voltaire, H.M.S.: sunk by Thor, 221, 222. Von Waldeyer-Hartz, Captain, German Navy: views of, on Naval Strategy, 213. Wake Island, U.S.S., escort carrier: 294. Walker, Captain F. J.: commanding 2nd Escort Group, 120; successes against U-boats, 120; his technique, 120. War, Napoleonic: 5. War of English Succession, 1689-97: tactics of French privateers, 62. War of 1812-14: superiority of American frigates and sloops in, 19. War of French Revolution: 5. War of Jenkins’ Ear, 1739-41: convoy lesson from, 42. War Plan: British, in 1939, 4, 53, 55. War Zones: U-boats, 1939-41, 50-51. Warspitc, H.M.S.: U-boat sunk by air escort of, 55. Washington: Conferences at, February 1942 and March 1943, 35. Weather: effect on convoys, 36, 39, 46; effect on A/S operations, 46; effect on A/S forces, 298. Wegener, Vice-Admiral. German Navy: pamphlet on Naval Strategy, 213. Wellington A/S aircraft: numbers in service, 103. West Africa: coastal convoy system in, 30; start of SL convoys from, 31; U-boat attacks off, 1942, 42; U-boats diverted to, April 1941, 71; success of convoy escorts off, 99, 100; see also Freetown. West Coast, Great Britain: use instead of East Coast owing to air attack, 53. 380 INDEX Western Approaches, First World War: U-boat operations in, 6, 9; A/S measures in, 6-7; importance of, 6. Western Approaches Command: introduction of convoy in, 29, 54; escort of HG and SL convoys, 31; mid-ocean meeting point for, 33; eastern ocean meeting point for, 34; without A/S forces in War Plan, 1939, 53; A/S forces operated as hunting units, 54; build-up of convoy escorts, 59; C.-in-C. on tenacious hunting of U-boats, 68; headquarters moved from Plymouth to Liverpool, 69. Western Support Force: formed, 89. West Indies: U.S. base in, 80. Westomp: 34. Whitley A/S aircraft: numbers in service, 103. Wild Goose, H.M.S.: 2nd Escort Group, sinks U-boat, 120. Wireless telegraphy: use by U-boats helps to preserve convoys, 31; pack attacks made possible by, 62. Woodpecker, H.M.S.: sunk, 120. Worcestershire, H.M.S.: damaged by U-boat, 71. Wren, H.M.S.: 2nd Escort Group, 120. Ymuiden: German mining off, 194. York, H.M.S.: 215. Zeebrugge: bombing of U-boat base, 10; raid on, l91X, 13; British minelaying off, 188; German minelaying off, 194. ZZ. Craft: type of minesweeper, 289.
Eric Grove was born in Bolton, Lancashire in 1948. He gained an MA in War Studies at King’s College London in 1971, and a further MA in History from Aberdeen University and was appointed in 1971 as a civilian lecturer at Britannia Royal Naval Collage, Dartmouth. During the 1970s he wrote books on tanks and armoured warfare. He was the first Dartmouth academic to exchange for a year with the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, 1980-81. He left Dartmouth as Deputy Head of Strategic Studies and International Affairs in 1984, worked briefly for the Council for Arms Control before becoming a freelance academic and defence consultant. He worked mainly for the Foundation for International Security’s Common Security Programme, and then its project on Maritime Power and European Security, involving dialogue between the Soviet, US and Royal Navies. He also taught at RNC Greenwich and the University of Cambridge.
In 1993 he accepted a position with the Department of Politics at Hull University and its Centre for Security Studies, and obtained a PhD, on the basis of his published work in 1996. He left Hull in 2005 where he had become Reader in Politics and International Studies and Director of the Centre, having founded a new undergraduate course in War and Security Studies. He had also acted as consultant and joint author of the Royal Navy’s The Fundamentals of British Maritime Doctrine. He was involved in the first iteration of British Defence Doctrine. In 1997 he was a visiting fellow at the Centre for Maritime Policy at the University of Wollongong, New South Wales. In 2005 he moved to the University of Salford, where he was Professor of Naval History and Director of the Centre for International Security and War Studies. In 2012 he moved to Liverpool Hope University, as Professor of Naval History and Fellow in Security Studies.
He has made contributions to BBC2’s Timewatch series, Deep Wreck Mysteries. Channel 4’s The Hunt for the Hood and the Bismarck, and the series The Battleships and The Airships.
His published work includes
• World War II Tanks (Orbis, 1976).
• German Armour Poland and France, 1939-40 (Almark, 1976).
• Russian Armour 1941-43 (Almark, 1977).
• Sea Battles in Close Up Volume I (Naval Institute Press, 1983).
• Vanguard to Trident: British Naval Policy Since 1945 (Bodley Head, 1987).
• The Future of Sea Power (1990).
• Battle for the Fiords (Ian Allen, 1991).
• Fleet to Fleet Encounters (Arms and Armour Press, 1991).
• Sea Battles in Close Up, Volume II Naval Institute Press, 1993).
• Great Battle of the Royal Navy, as Commemorated in the Gunroom of BRNC Dartmouth (Arms and Armour Press, 1994).
• The Battle and the Breeze: the Reminiscences of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Edward Ashmore (Sutton, 1997).
• The Defeat of the Enemy Attack on Shipping (Navy Records Society, 1997).
• The Price of Disobedience: The Battle of the River Plate reconsidered (Sutton. 2000).
• The Royal Navy since 1815 (Palgrave, 2005).
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